Psycholinguistics

IS LANGUAGE RESTRICTED TO HUMANS?

A.    INTRODUCTION

            The word ‘talk’ can be used in two different interpretation : (a) to utter words and (b) to use a language in a meaningful way. The major purpose behind such questions is to examine whether only humans have the power of speech. Language is restricted to the human species. In spite of this, if we discover that language is beyond their capability, then we may have found some indication that language is a genetically programmed activity which is primarily separate from general intelligence.

B.     DO ANIMALS TALK NATURALLY?

            There are two theories of communication, continuity and discontinuity theory. Continuity theory is about means of communication in a continuous line of growth. Discontinuity theory is about the differences the basic of animal heritage and superimposed on it. Language is a complex mosaic in which some features are continuous, and some discontinuous with animal communication. Actually, animal is intentionally trying to convey information surrounding it.

C.    ESSENTIAL NATURE OF HUMAN LANGUAGE

1.      The Use of the Vocal-Auditory Channel

            Sounds are made with the vocal organs, and a hearing mechanism receives them. The advantages of this method of producing the sound are that it leaves the body free to carry on other activities at the same time, and also requires relatively little physical energy. This characteristic is of little use in an attempt to distinguish animal from human communication. (a) language can be transferred without loss to visual symbols and (b) patients who have had their vocal cords removed,  and communicate mainly by writing, have not lost their language ability.

2.      Arbitrariness

            Arbitrariness means that human language use neutral symbols but arbitrariness cannot be regarded as a critical distinction between human and animal communication.

3.      Semanticity

            Semanticity is the use of symbols to ‘mean’ or refer to objects and actions.

4.      Cultural Transmission or Tradition

            Cultural transmission or tradition indicates that human beings transfer their languages down from one generation to another. An evidence is that A child brought up in isolation away from human beings, does not acquire language. In contrast, birds reared in isolation sing songs that are sometimes recognizable, though almost always abnormal.

5.      Spontaneous Usage, & 8.3.6 Turn-Taking

            Spontaneous usage indicates that humans initiate speech freely. Speaking is not something which they do under forcible restriction, like a dog that will stand on its hind legs only when a biscuit is held above its nose. This feature is certainly not restricted to humans, and many animals use their natural communication systems freely.

6.      Duality or Double-Articulation

            Duality or double-articulation means that language is organized into two ‘layers’. This features can not show the difference between animal and human.

7.      Displacement

            Displacement refers to the ability to refer to things far removed in time and place.

8.      Structure-Dependence

            Human do not just apply simple recognition or counting techniques when they speak to one another. They automatically recognize the patterned nature of language, and manipulate ‘structured chunks’.

9.      Creativity

            This feature refers to the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances. Humans can talk about anything they like without causing any linguistic problems to themselves or the hearers. They can say what they want when they want. Most animals have a fixed number of signals which convey a set number of messages, sent in clearly definable circumstances. Some animals try to communicate to courting a mate and the marking of territory.

10.  Intention-Reading

            Human beings are the world’s experts at mind reading. As compared with other species, humans are much more skillful at discerning what others are perceiving, intending, desiring, knowing, and believing. Although the pinnacle of mind-reading is understanding beliefs – as beliefs are indisputably mental and normative – the foundational skill is understanding intentions. In order to qualify as ‘talkers’ they have to utilize all the design characteristics of human language ‘naturally’, the answer is clearly ‘no’. (a) No animal communication system has duality and displacement, (b) no animal system can be proved to have semanticity or (c) to use structure dependent operations, (d) no animal can communicate creatively with another animal, and (e) no animal can mind-read with ease and efficiency of humans.

            Although animals do not ‘naturally’ talk this does not mean that they are incapable of talking.

D.    TEACHING SIGN LANGUAGE TO APES: WASHOE AND NIM

           

            The apes that had been an experiment (Gua) showed clearly that it was not just lack of opportunity which prevents a chimp from learning language. The major reason why these attempts failed is that chimps are not physiologically capable of uttering human sounds.

1.      Signer 1: Washoe

            The chimp was kept continuously surrounded by humans who communicated with her and each other by sign. The chimp acquired a number of single words, her speech clearly had ‘semanticity’, she could also generalize the situation, displacement, and creativity. The fact that this chimp spontaneously transmitted signs to another

chimp is interesting and important, but it does not change these signs into ‘language’.

2.      Signer 2: Nim

            Repetitive, inconsistently structured strings are in fact characteristic of ape signing. The experiment conclude that (1) Nim did not use his signs in the structured, creative, social way that is characteristic of human children, (2) it would be premature to conclude that a chimpanzee’s combination show the same structure evident in the sentences of a child, (3) Nim’s signing with his teachers bore only a superficial resemblance to a child’s conversations with his or her parents.

E.     CONQUERORS OF THE KEYBOARD – POINTERS: LANA & KANZI

1.      Pointers : Lana

            Lana showed that her system had semanticity, she also showed some evidence of creativity and displacement. Lana’s trainers, confidently claim that she had language, but they define language in a much broader way than we have done. That is, they define it as any communication system which refers consistently to the outside world by means of a set of arbitrary symbols which are combined together in accordance with conventional rules.

2.      Pointer 2: Kanzi

            Kanzi is a highly intelligent, sociable creature. But his language is not significantly more advanced than that of the other primates. He used symbols primarily to obtain items he wanted. The notion of talking for the sake of talking is largely a human attribute.

original resource: Suparman, Ujang. 2010. Psycholinguistics: The Theory of Language Acquisition first edition. Bandung: Arfino Raya.